The Emergency provisions in the Indian Constitution, detailed under Part XVIII (Articles 352 to 360), grant the central government the authority to handle extraordinary situations that threaten the security, governance, or financial stability of the country. These provisions allow for the declaration of different types of emergencies based on specific grounds:
- National Emergency (Article 352): Can be declared on the grounds of war, external aggression, or armed rebellion, leading to suspension of fundamental rights and increased central power.
- State Emergency or President’s Rule (Article 356): Imposed when there is a failure of constitutional machinery in a state, leading to central control over the state’s governance.
- Financial Emergency (Article 360): Declared when there is a threat to the financial stability of India, allowing the Union government to control financial operations across the country.
These provisions have been invoked several times in India’s history, most notably during the 1975 National Emergency declared by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. Amendments, especially the 44th Amendment (1978), introduced vital safeguards to prevent abuse, ensuring that such powers are subject to parliamentary oversight and judicial review
National Emergency (Article 352)
A National Emergency is a constitutional provision under Article 352 of the Indian Constitution, allowing the President of India to declare an emergency in the country or any part thereof, in the event of a grave threat to the nation’s security due to war, external aggression, or armed rebellion (formerly referred to as internal disturbance).
During a National Emergency:
The Central Government gains sweeping powers to control the entire country, including overriding state governance.
Certain Fundamental Rights, especially those under Article 19, can be suspended.
The distribution of powers between the central and state governments becomes highly centralized, with Parliament gaining the authority to legislate on subjects in the State List.
The emergency remains in effect for six months at a time but can be extended indefinitely with parliamentary approval. This provision is designed to protect the nation during extreme circumstances but has strict procedural safeguards to prevent abuse.
Grounds for Declaration: A National Emergency can be proclaimed by the President of India based on three specific grounds:
War:
War refers to an open, declared armed conflict between two or more nations, which directly threatens the sovereignty, security, or territorial integrity of India. In such cases, the Indian government must take urgent and extraordinary measures to protect the nation from the consequences of the conflict.
Example:
1971 National Emergency during the Indo-Pakistan War:
India declared a National Emergency on December 3, 1971, during the Indo-Pakistani war that led to the creation of Bangladesh. The war began after a massive refugee crisis and civil war in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), with India supporting the independence movement.
As the conflict escalated into a full-fledged war with Pakistan, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi requested the President to declare an Emergency based on the ground of war.
The Emergency remained in effect until March 1977, covering both the Indo-Pakistani conflict and the subsequent political period.
Effects:
The Central Government took control of key administrative and legislative powers to manage war-related activities.
Fundamental rights like Article 19 (freedom of speech and expression) were suspended to ensure national security.
External Aggression:
External aggression refers to hostile actions by a foreign country that may not amount to a formal declaration of war but still threaten India’s national security, such as military incursions, border conflicts, or attacks on India’s territorial integrity
ILLUSTRATIONS:
1962 National Emergency during the Indo-China War:
A National Emergency was declared in October 1962 following the border conflict between India and China. The war was triggered by territorial disputes over the Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh regions.
The Chinese military launched an invasion across the Himalayan border, creating a grave threat to India’s sovereignty.
The Emergency was declared to mobilize national resources, concentrate military efforts, and ensure internal stability during the conflict.
This Emergency lasted until January 1968.
Effects:
The Emergency allowed the government to suppress any opposition or dissent, allowing full focus on military defense against the external threat.
Article 19 was suspended, restricting freedom of speech and assembly to prevent any internal unrest that could affect national security.
Armed Rebellion (formerly “Internal Disturbance”):
The ground of armed rebellion was introduced by the 44th Amendment (1978), replacing the earlier term “internal disturbance.” It refers to a large-scale violent uprising or insurrection within the country that endangers the stability of the government or national security. Armed rebellion must involve organized, violent resistance that requires the central government to intervene.
The change from “internal disturbance” to “armed rebellion” was made to avoid misuse, as “internal disturbance” was a vague term that could cover a wide range of situations.
Example:
1975 National Emergency declared by Indira Gandhi:
This National Emergency, declared on June 25, 1975, was based on “internal disturbance,” though the term was broader than what is now covered by “armed rebellion.”
The political context involved the Allahabad High Court‘s ruling that invalidated Indira Gandhi’s election to Parliament, combined with growing unrest, protests led by opposition leaders (such as Jayaprakash Narayan), and labor strikes.
Indira Gandhi claimed the internal situation posed a threat to national stability and used this as grounds to declare an Emergency.
Effects:
Fundamental rights were suspended, political opponents were jailed, and media was censored. The Habeas Corpus petitions challenging unlawful detentions were denied by the Supreme Court in the controversial ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla case.
The Emergency lasted until March 21, 1977, and is widely criticized as an overreach of government power.
Post-44th Amendment:
After the 44th Amendment in 1978, an Emergency on the grounds of armed rebellion can only be declared when there is large-scale, violent, and organized rebellion against the state, thus restricting the vague use of “internal disturbance.”
Procedure and Legal Requirements (Article 352):
Proclamation by the President: The President can declare an Emergency only upon receiving a written recommendation from the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister.
Parliamentary Approval:
The proclamation must be placed before both Houses of Parliament (Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha) and approved within one month.
The Emergency, once approved, continues for six months and can be extended indefinitely, but it requires re-approval by Parliament every six months.
Special Majority: The approval needs a special majority (a majority of members present and voting, and two-thirds of those present).
Revocation: The Emergency can be revoked at any time by the President, and the Lok Sabha can force a revocation by passing a resolution disapproving the Emergency.
Effects of National Emergency:
Suspension of Fundamental Rights: Fundamental Rights under Article 19 are automatically suspended. Other rights may be affected as per presidential orders.
Union Power over States: The Central government assumes a dominant role over state governments, and Parliament can legislate on any matter, including those in the State List.
Legislative Powers of Parliament: During the Emergency, the Union Parliament has the power to legislate on any subject from the State List, thus centralizing authority.
State Emergency (Article 356) – President’s Rule
Grounds for Declaration: A State Emergency, also called President’s Rule, can be imposed when:
A State Emergency, also known as President’s Rule, is a provision under Article 356 of the Indian Constitution. It is imposed when the President of India is satisfied that the constitutional machinery in a state has broken down, and the state government is unable to function according to the provisions of the Constitution.
During President’s Rule:
The state legislature is either dissolved or suspended, and the state comes under the direct control of the central government.
The Governor of the state administers the state on behalf of the President.
Parliament takes over the legislative powers of the state assembly.
Grounds for Imposition:
- Failure of the state government to comply with the directions of the Union Government.
- Breakdown of law and order or political instability in the state.
- The Governor‘s report indicating the inability of the state government to function according to the Constitution.
Procedure and Legal Requirements (Article 356):
- Governor’s Report: The President can declare President’s Rule upon receiving a report from the Governor of the concerned state or otherwise if satisfied that the state’s governance cannot be carried out per the Constitution.
- Parliamentary Approval:
- The proclamation must be approved by both Houses of Parliament within two months.
- If approved, President’s Rule lasts for six months at a time and can be extended for a maximum of three years, subject to Parliament’s approval every six months.
- Judicial Review: The imposition of President’s Rule is subject to judicial review, meaning that courts can examine whether the grounds for its declaration were valid.
Effects of President’s Rule:
- Dissolution or Suspension of State Legislature: The President can either dissolve the state legislature or keep it in suspended animation.
- Central Control: The executive authority of the state is taken over by the President, who functions through the Governor.
- Parliament’s Legislative Powers: Parliament can legislate for the state on matters in the State List.
Example: President’s Rule has been imposed in various states, such as in Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab during the insurgency, and Bihar in 2005 due to political instability
3. Financial Emergency (Article 360)
A Financial Emergency is a provision under Article 360 of the Indian Constitution, allowing the President of India to declare an emergency if the financial stability or credit of the country or any part of its territory is threatened.
During a Financial Emergency:
- The executive authority of the central government gains control over the financial affairs of the states.
- The salaries and allowances of all government officials, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, can be reduced.
- All money bills and other financial bills passed by state legislatures may be subject to the President’s approval.
The purpose of a Financial Emergency is to restore financial stability by giving the Union government overriding powers over the states in financial matters.
Notably, no Financial Emergency has ever been declared in India to date.
Grounds for Declaration: A Financial Emergency can be declared when there is a threat to:
- The financial stability or credit of India.
- The financial stability of any part of India.
Procedure and Legal Requirements (Article 360):
Proclamation by the President: The President can declare a Financial Emergency if he believes that India’s financial stability or credit is in danger.
Parliamentary Approval:
The proclamation must be approved by both Houses of Parliament within two months.
Unlike other emergencies, a Financial Emergency continues indefinitely once approved by Parliament, with no need for periodic re-approval.
Revocation: It can be revoked at any time by the President.
Effects of Financial Emergency:
- Reduction of Salaries: The salaries and allowances of all government officials, including judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, can be reduced.
- Control Over State Finances: The Union government can give directions to any state regarding the use of its finances.
- Monetary Powers: All money bills passed by state legislatures need the President’s assent during a Financial Emergency.
Note: No Financial Emergency has been declared in India till date
Key Constitutional Amendments Related to Emergency Provisions:
- 38th Amendment (1975):
- Made the declaration of a National Emergency immune from judicial review.
- Gave the President the power to issue different proclamations on different grounds, such as war or internal disturbance.
- 42nd Amendment (1976):
- Further curtailed the powers of the judiciary during an Emergency.
- Enhanced the powers of the central government during an Emergency, allowing far-reaching changes in the federal structure.
- 44th Amendment (1978):
- Replaced the term “internal disturbance” with “armed rebellion” to prevent the arbitrary use of Emergency powers.
- Restored judicial review of the President’s proclamation of Emergency.
- Made the suspension of Fundamental Rights less extensive, specifically ensuring that Article 20 (protection in respect of conviction for offenses) and Article 21 (right to life and personal liberty) could not be suspended during an Emergency.
- Introduced stricter procedures for declaring a National Emergency by requiring the written recommendation of the Council of Ministers and mandated approval by Parliament within one month.
Case Laws Related to Emergency Provisions in India
1. Keshavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973)
In the landmark case of Keshavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (AIR 1973 SC 1461), the Supreme Court established the Basic Structure Doctrine, asserting that Parliament cannot alter the fundamental framework of the Constitution, even during periods of emergency. This case arose from challenges to amendments made to the Constitution and underscored the importance of protecting fundamental rights against potential governmental overreach. The ruling emphasized that the Constitution remains supreme and must uphold democratic principles regardless of the political climate.
2. ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla (1976)
The ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla case (AIR 1976 SC 1207) emerged during the National Emergency declared by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi from 1975 to 1977. This case involved the denial of Habeas Corpus petitions by individuals detained without trial. The Supreme Court controversially ruled that during a National Emergency, the right to seek judicial intervention for the enforcement of Article 21 (right to life and liberty) could be suspended. This judgment faced significant criticism for permitting the suspension of fundamental rights and for its implications on civil liberties during emergencies.
3. State of Rajasthan v. Union of India (1977)
In State of Rajasthan v. Union of India (AIR 1977 SC 1361), the Supreme Court dealt with the imposition of President’s Rule in Rajasthan during the Emergency. The Court upheld the President’s authority to impose President’s Rule when the constitutional machinery in a state has broken down. This ruling clarified the scope of Article 356 and reinforced the central government’s power to intervene in state governance during times of crisis, asserting that such measures are necessary to maintain order and uphold the Constitution.
4. Minerva Mills Ltd. v. Union of India (1980)
The Minerva Mills Ltd. v. Union of India case (AIR 1980 SC 1789) revisited the amendments made during the Emergency, particularly the controversial 42nd Amendment. The Supreme Court ruled that these amendments violated the Basic Structure Doctrine, reinforcing that the Constitution must remain the ultimate authority, safeguarding fundamental rights and democratic processes. This case established critical precedents regarding the limits of governmental power, particularly in emergency situations, and emphasized the judiciary’s role in upholding constitutional integrity.
5. I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu (2007)
In the latter case of I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu ((2007) 2 SCC 1), the Supreme Court examined laws passed during the Emergency and their alignment with the Basic Structure Doctrine. The Court determined that laws enacted during this period could still be subject to judicial review if they infringed upon fundamental rights. This ruling reaffirmed the judiciary’s authority to scrutinize legislative actions taken under the guise of emergency powers, highlighting the ongoing necessity for checks and balances within the constitutional framework.
Comparison with Other Nations:
1. United States:
The U.S. does not have specific provisions for declaring a national emergency in the Constitution. However, the National Emergencies Act of 1976 provides the President with emergency powers.
Checks and Balances: The President must notify Congress and specify the emergency powers used. Congress can terminate the emergency by passing a joint resolution.
2. United Kingdom:
The UK does not have a written constitution but has emergency powers under legislation like the Civil Contingencies Act of 2004.
Scope: The emergency powers are more restricted to deal with crises like natural disasters, health emergencies, or public unrest.
Judicial Oversight: The courts play a significant role in reviewing the use of emergency powers to ensure they are lawful and proportionate.
3. Germany:
Basic Law (Grundgesetz) provides for a state of emergency under specific conditions, like armed attacks or natural disasters.
Restrictions: Even during an emergency, certain basic rights, like human dignity, cannot be suspended.
Parliamentary and Judicial Safeguards: Any emergency measure must comply with strict constitutional norms, and the Constitutional Court ensures that the rule of law prevails.
Conclusion:
The Emergency provisions in the Indian Constitution, while crucial for addressing national crises, have a history of misuse, particularly during the 1975-77 Emergency. The 44th Amendment introduced vital safeguards to prevent arbitrary use of these powers, restoring judicial oversight and protecting fundamental rights. However, when compared with other democratic nations like the U.S., UK, and Germany, India’s emergency framework strikes a balance between executive authority and parliamentary oversight, ensuring that extraordinary powers are used responsibly and are subject to democratic control.
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